Bend It Like Beckham Review Essay Example

Bend It Like Beckham Review Paper Essay on Bend It Like Beckham Another novelization which I read was quite good, despite the fact that among the worthy books of this genre are extremely rare. The same book is impressive specimen of good literature for children and adolescents, of course, thanks to the skill Narinder Dham, from the pen which is not a childrens book came out. In contrast to the same movie, here all the events are described only by persons Jess, an Indian girl London, which, despite the prohibitions of parents, sees the meaning of his life only in football. She has to make many difficult decisions to make mistakes, lying to parents, to upset them, but its all for the sake of their dreams. I think the book does not give cause for deep reflection, but it allows you to penetrate deep into the Indian culture, to understand how living these families as they live among other cultures, which is also important. There were in the book, as well as in the film, and only a plus. The language is quite easy, the style of the author is notable for good, not even annoying without love interest, although it reserved more than a secondary role, that is in other book, that the story is told from the first face (IMHO). As for the translation, there is, as always, no complaints: some sloppy phrases and irrelevance chosen words strongly catches the eye and slightly spoils the impression. In addition, there are typos, that does not speak in favor of publication. We will write a custom essay sample on Bend It Like Beckham Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Bend It Like Beckham Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Bend It Like Beckham Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Self novelization value is quite high, because even if you have not watched the movie, the book can capture your attention, and it does not look dry retelling of the film: after all, it is very well reveals the inner world of the protagonist. As for the secondary characters Jules, who offered Jess to play in the womens team and later became her friend, Joe, this very coach the womens team and some other funny characters a little sad that they left behind. Although those who have not watched the movie, it may not seem important, but those who watched their line and so clear. Thats all I wanted to say. The only thing that bothers me now, the way the book was perceived to be me, I do not know its source. =)

homogenizing the homosexual essays

homogenizing the homosexual essays On a hot June night in 1969 the sexual discourses of theology, law and psychology encountered resistance so strong that millions of lives were changed. In a small gay bar in New York, the regulars, an eclectic mix of drag queens, transexuals, effeminate men and butch women, offered up the most visible resistance ever witnessed to the relentless exercising of public power on their private lives. The three-day street riot, began by Stonewall patrons, spilled onto the front pages and television screens of a nation. The exposure placed the queen, queer and dyke in the living rooms, kitchens and supermarkets of straight America. The resistance of gays to the external and internal subjectification of themselves as sinners, sodomites and psychopaths began. Before this seminal event, gays were known, but their lives operated in the back streets and alleyways of urban life. They were invisible to mainstream North Americans and expected to stay in the shadows where their deviant bodies belonged. The patrons of the Stonewall bar lived at the precipice of gay life. Their adoption of cross dressing was an affront to prevailing sexual norms. Women in suits and men in scarves and chiffon were the most identifiable of deviants and they relished their disobedience. Strutting through urban nights they gleefully thumbed their noses at the heterosexual world. They embraced every stereotype and took the constitution of the gay subject to extremes. The visibility of these men and women made them easy targets for random displays of force by police. Haphazard attacks on gay bars and clubs instilled fear of the unknown. The visible cared little about the repercussions of these raids for they had nothing to lose. For this they were shunned by their gay brethren who viewed them as circus sideshow freaks. These queens, queers and dykes were dangerous. Their openness put average gays at risk. The physical and verbal abuse by police, abandonm...

Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Research - Essay Example In addition, he illustrates that conservatives do not have the right to implement their religious beliefs on another group of people. The 14th amendment can be used to protect gay marriage and the conservatives do not base their arguments against gay marriage on any legal concepts or founding principles of the country. Kellard also argues against the fact that people are against children being educated about gay marriages at school (n.p). He states that this is not protecting them as they will be exposed to this information at some point in their lives. Kellard states that the notion that gay marriage is against the constitution of marriage is wrong as the main reason people get married is for love (n.p). On the other hand, many people are against the legalizing of gay marriages. This group of individuals considers the act as unnatural and incompatible to society. Per Springg stated that the advocates for gay marriage are unaware of the long term implications that exist with legalizing gay marriages (n.p). Some of these effects would include the teaching of homosexual marriage in public schools. This would directly influence the mentality of children in schools and affect societal norms. Many of these children will be led towards gay marriage as it would be something new. Hence, this threatens religious liberties and many religions would be persecuted and condemned for opposing gay marriage. The other impacts would be on the increase in the number of divorces and a reduction in the number of heterosexual marriages. This would also result in the denial of either a mother or a father for many children who are raised in these families. Since homosexuals are incapable of reproduction phy siologically, there would be a decrease in the birth rate which will affect the dynamics of the population in the country. In addition, other people such as polygamists would also raise the point that they are allowed to marry multiple

Compare and contrast the comercial revelotion and indusrtrial Essay

Compare and contrast the comercial revelotion and indusrtrial revelotion.(1500-2000 AD) - Essay Example Further the commercial and industrial society gained huge profits through the means of mass production. (â€Å"Commercial/Industrial Societies†) The growth of economic activities in countries like Europe rapidly pushed the development of trade and mercantile zones which traded on the goods produced by the manufacturing units. Growth in trade and commerce caused a greater capital inflow in the regions. The modern economy thus was observed to shift its dependence from the agricultural base to mercantile and commercial base. The above changes reflect an emergence of a revolution which came to be known as the Commercial Revolution. Advent of commercial revolution also led to the emergence of banks and other financial institutions which acted as middlemen in the economic system. (â€Å"The Commercial Revolution†) The Commercial Revolution gained potential in regions like Europe and United Kingdom with the growth of industrial societies. Growth of the industrial societies was spearheaded by the rapid development of transport systems. Thus certain regions of the world became the potential centers which catered to the mass production of goods and services leading to Industrial Revolution. (Knowles, 10) The trade and commercial activities of the global economies was restricted within the boundaries of such countries in the absence of the concept of globalization. Different countries of the world showed no proper connection with each other. Trade and Commercial activities only existed within regional barriers with no such international linkage. However, restricted trade in the international sphere was observed between the European countries with regions like China and Africa. The international trade between the European countries with Chinese and African counterparts was restricted in nature for it did not encompass direct transactions between the trade bodies of such countries. Rather the commercialization advocated during

Epicurus Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Epicurus Paper - Essay Example As a result, these good and bad aspects in life are what contribute to pleasure and pain respectively. Epicurus went ahead to describe what exactly pain and please were in his understanding. He mentioned that a person may decide to choose between pain and pleasure. As a result, if an individual selects pleasure over pain in their lives, then they are prone to endure only the pleasurable things in life. Else, an individual will only endure all the bad and/ or sad events in their lives. It should be noted that Epicurus was advocating for pleasure in both dynamics- that is pleasure in the body as well as the mind together with satiety and freedom from fear of death (Epicurus 128-129). As cited from the Epicurus Reader, pleasure in happiness was all up to the individual. â€Å"Do you want to be happy? Of course you do! Then what’s standing in your way? Your happiness is entirely up to you. This has been revealed to us by a man of divine serenity and wisdom who spent his life amon g us, and showed us, by his personal example and by his teaching, the path to redemption from unhappiness† (Hutchinson, â€Å"Introduction to The Epicurus Reader†). Based on that, he added that the only aspect that could hinder our happiness was based on our feelings. For example, if an individual was extremely nervous or anxious, then their pleasure in happiness would be distorted. Another example that was projected by Epicurus was based on rich people and healthy people. That is, if a rich person gets extremely anxious to be richer, then that individual will lack happiness and pleasure in their life since their mind is optimally focussed on what is not readily available in their lives. In addition to that, if an individual would get anxious about their eating habits as well as their health, then they could as well get sick, all because of what their mind is focussed on. The best advice that Epicurus put forward was that people should enjoy what they currently have and be glad that they do have it. This is due to the fact that there are those who have nothing in their lives and they are extremely happy for whatever little it is that they have – â€Å"You can't be happy in this life if you're worried about the next life... But you can be happy if you believe in the four basic truths of Epicureanism: there are no divine beings which threaten us; there is no next life; what we actually need is easy to get; what makes us suffer is easy to put up with.† As a result, Epicurus terms this as the â€Å"Epicurean remedy† to all the problems that people face in their life (Hutchinson, â€Å"Introduction to The Epicurus Reader†). According to Yapijakis (2009), the same concept of pleasure and pain was also introduced into the field of medicine. This was done by Asclepiades of Bithynia who was an Epicurean doctor and Greek medicine practitioner. For example, for individuals who were insane, Asclepiades of Bithynia proposed that a n atural cure to their illness would be to treat them in a human manner as compared to showing such people acts of suffering and pain by treating them badly. Through such humane acts, insane patients would have the feeling of pleasure and happiness. This methodology by Asclepiades of Bithynia turned out to be a success and a major solution to a number of illnesses, mental illnesses being one of them. As a result, he became one

Errors Made By Polish Students In English English Language Essay

Errors Made By Polish Students In English English Language Essay Introduction Language is an instrument of communication among people. It is a well structured and special characteristic of human interaction. According to Sapir (1921,p.8) Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. Learning a new language involves such components as grammar, vocabulary and phonology. It is necessary to make a distinction between two processes: acquiring and learning a language. The former can be defined as a subconscious process that is identical to the process children utilize in acquiring their first language. Krashen (1985, p.1) states that learning refers to the conscious process that results in knowing about language. Ellis (1994) adds that learning is not as successful and long lasting as language acquisition. In order to be able to communicate, people should master the four skills: reading, listening, speaking and writing. The last skill which the researcher focussed on is a very complex process. As Allen and Corder (1974, p.177) say, it is the most difficult of the language abilities to acquire. When learners want to produce a piece of writing in second language (L2), they try to translate some First language (L1) words or phrases by applying rules from their L1. It is presumed that most of the problems facing L2 learners are caused by their mother tongue. If the contrast between L1 and L2 appears, the learners native language knowledge interferes with the target language and problems are difficult to avoid. However, a similarity of two languages in some situations may help L2 learning. The process that is responsible for this is called language transfer which is also known as cross-linguistic influence (Arabski, 1997). Many linguists have been interested in the nature of the learners la nguage and the major mistakes which arise in it. One of those was Corder (1981) who recognised the significance of interference and fossilisation in the process of second language learning, claiming that each L2 learner uses a special kind of a legitimate dialect governed by its own set of rules, some of them being peculiar to the learner and his native language(1981,p.25). Selinker (1974, p.35) also believed in the existence of a separate linguistic system based on the observable output which results from a learners attempted production of a TL norm. Such a system, which he referred to as interlanguage, is always different from the target language until the native speakers competence has been achieved by the learner. The concept of such an interim language added a new dimension to the learner language study. Before that, with contrastive analysis, linguists made only a one direction comparison between the first and the target language. With reference to Selinkers theory, language structure comprises the fundamental processes such as: (1) First language transfer; (2) Errors occurring as a result of this process are attributed to the learners native language influence; (3) Transfer of training; (4) Strategies of second language learning; (5) Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material (Selinker 1974, p.37) Polish language belongs to the West Slavonic branch of the Indo-European languages; it is closely related to Czech, Slovak and Russian. In some parts of Europe such as : Russia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine Polish is also used as a second language. In terms of the grammar, Polish is a very inflected language. There are numerous features, which distinguish the language from the other languages. A noun for example constitutes gender: masculine, feminine, neuter. Nouns, pronouns and adjectives have seven case forms, which have different endings. Another difficulty for Polish learners refers to phrasal verbs and articles that dont exist in their native language. Moreover Polish language also has indefinite fractional and collective numerals, which depend on the thing that is counted. All these contrasts lead to errors. In Poland people learn English as a foreign language. Polish learners are in a different situation than inhabitants of, for instance, India or Republic of South Africa as English is not their official language. Therefore, they have no need to develop assimilative or integrative motivation for learning English as they do not feel the drive to write and speak like native speakers and sustain high level of foreign language. In this way, Poles are far more interested in studying English for more instrumental purposes, such as: going abroad and finding a well-paid job, or getting a promotion in their native country. It also happens that they friendships acquired by means of the Internet has led to a desire to communicate with them, thus English seems to be most suitable as it is spoken all over the world. One of the benefits of knowing a foreign language skills is intercultural communication. English is becoming the most popular second language in the world. It is used as lingua franca, f or politics, and business and education. After changing the political system in Poland, English has become more popular and is considered an important part of a good education. It became a compulsory subject in primary and secondary schools in Poland (Swan and Smith, 2001). Errors Every foreign language learner commits errors. As Brown (1980,p.164) claims second language learning in contrary to the first language learning is a process in trial-and-error nature. Teachers and researchers realized that L2 learners errors created a new system of language which had to be analyzed carefully. It is very important to make a distinction between various types of language behavior by giving the definition of error and mistake which are frequently misused. According to Ellis (1997,p.17) errors reflect gaps in a learners knowledge; they occur because the learner does not know what is correct As for the mistake Brown (1980,p.165) states that it refers to a performance error that is either random guess or a slip, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system . From the researchers experience as a Polish native it is necessary to state that Poles commit many errors, such as: syntactic, or semantic ones, and they are the ones in which either L1 and L2 (or both) play the mo st important role. This is partially caused by the fact that learners often experiment with prepositions and articles they know they cannot rely on the interference/transfer from Polish. Hence, they build their own hypotheses and try to insert the correct functional word. Moreover, some syntax errors are difficult to classify. Most of the deviances result from applying Polish syntactic rules to English phrases. The main difficulty is that the wrong choice of word results in the emergence of a semantic error, and if a larger phrase is written on the basis of L1 rules, it renders the whole phrase or sentence incomprehensible for a non- Polish speaker. Then, malformed sentences make English difficult to decode even for a proficient speaker. It has also been one of the main concerns of the branch of linguistics, which is, researching similarities and dissimilarities between first and foreign language acquisition, as well as determining the strategies which learners employ in the course of these processes. Teaching adolescent foreign language learners is a challenge for second language teachers and there are many reasons behind it. Firstly it is essential to emphasize the fact that in the case of children, acquiring L2 comes together with general cognitive and affective development of a child, which means that even though children have no meta-awareness, they are capable of automatic acquisition that is not hindered by personality, motivation, attitude or other factors (Brown, 2000). Older learners, such as adolescents or adults undergo the process of language acquisition in a different way. It looks more like a formal sort of learning (which is the result deliberate teaching) in the course of which explicit rules and language content are presented since the cognitive development is already completed in this age group. In other words, adolescents are able to think in abstract terms, they can learn far complex grammatical issues as the already developed meta-cognition and inductive lear ning ability allow them for that (Ellis,1995).There are various factors which influence second language learning. They include individual learner differences such as age, cognitive style, intelligence, motivation/needs, learners grammatical system and learners native language. According to Komorowska (2002) adults and adolescent learning is unnatural; it is much easier if they learn a second language or particular goals or reasons which results in a greater motivation. Littlewood (1984,p.53) confirms the importance of motivation for learning a second language: In second language learning as in every other field of human learning, motivation is the crucial force which determines whether a learner embarks on a task at all, how much energy he devotes to it, and how long he perseveres. According to Hopp (2004), two kinds of motivation can be distinguished: intrinsic and extrinsic. The former one is more prevalent among adults. The learners see language as an instrument to raise their self-esteem and achieve special goals such as getting a better job. The second kind of motivation is characteristic of a childs way of learning. Both these types of motivation are useful in the language learning process. Reason for choosing the topic Writing is a very important skill, however it causes much more problems than speaking or reading especially for L2 learners who think in their own language. In Poland the majority of secondary school pupils have not mastered this skill due to the lack of emphasis on teaching writing. During studies in Poland and working as a teacher of English, the researcher observed a number of errors made by Polish learners. A considerable number of these errors were similar to the ones she used to make as a beginner or even intermediate learner of English. Most of them reflected her lack of competence, knowledge of rules, whereas other errors were very much related to the writers mother tongue. Linguistically speaking, there were transfer errors, or, in other words, errors which involved interference e.g. Polish grammatical rules were applied to English. There are various reasons why the researcher has chosen this topic. One of these is differences between the two languages and also difficulties facing the learners from Poland. Although Polish students learn English language in primary and secondary schools, they are not able to produce correct sentences. They still try to translate sentences from their native language into English. All of the rules that need to be applied in L2 are different in L1. Thus, Polish learners and other non-native speakers (NNS) are prone to make more errors. 1.2. Aim and Objectives of the study The research has been conducted with reference to secondary school pupils from Poland. The overall aim of the study is to examine what type of errors are most common in the written discourse of the students. The associated research objectives are: What sorts of errors are most common in the written discourse of Polish learners of English as a foreign language? What is the percentage of various errors in learners written discourse? What are then the possible sources of those errors? How might the frequency of these errors be reduced? Why these errors occur? What could be done to improve written discourse? 1.3.Outline of the study The dissertation is divided into five chapters. It begins with the introduction describing the general background of the study. The second chapter provides a literature overview of theories related to errors and their sources. This part also shows classification and explanation of language behaviors. The definition of Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis can also be found it this chapter. A description of methodology can be found in the third chapter. The author discusses the instrument for collecting and analyzing the data. Chapter four deals with results from analysis of students errors in written compositions. Students samples and questionnaires are examined and interpreted in detail. The last chapter draws some conclusions on the research and considers recommendations for students and teachers. It also discusses implications for future teaching and research Chapter II Theoretical background 2.1 Nature of error It is obvious that every language learner is bound to make errors which are typically human characteristic. Errors have been of interest to many researchers as they are seen as a very important element in language acquisition. According to Norrish (1983) they can occur for many reasons; they may arise from the choice of the material, from the learners processing of the material or even from learners lack of attention. However the most serious kind of language deviances is caused by lack of learners knowledge. It is very important to introduce the distinction between errors, mistakes, lapses and slips. These terms are frequently misused by teachers. Although they have a similar meaning, the differences are significant. As for an error, numerous definitions have been given by different linguists with various attitudes towards errors. In most cases errors are regarded as negative language behavior. Norrish (1983,p.7) believed they are undesirable a sign of failure and systematic deviation, when a learner has not learnt something and consistently gets it wrong. Corder (1967) and Richards (1974) also consider errors as deviations from a standard linguistic system. To support this assumption Corder (1967,p.166) says: Errors are systematic, consistent deviances characteristic of the learners linguistic system at a given stage of learning. The key point is that the learner is using a definite system of language at every point in his developmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The learner errors are evidence of this system and are themselves systematic A similar attitude was presented by Dulay and Burt (1982,p.138) who considered errors as the flawed side of learners speech or writing. On the other hand errors can also be seen as an important and positive part of learning a language. :As Norrish (1983,p.6) states: the error itself may be a necessary part of learning a language. People are not able to detect errors because they have not learned the particular part of the material. Another linguist who was interested in this area was Ellis (1986,p.9), who also believed in the good side of error, stating: Errors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize target language rules and then reproduce them in their own utterances. They indicate that learners construct their own rules on the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of the target language. Lightbown and Spada (1999) agreed with the positive sides of errors, claiming that they can be the result of seeking the correct structure of the language. A different, less serious type of language behavior is called a mistake. According to Corder (1967) mistakes are deviances due to performance factors which include limitation of memory or emotional strain. Ellis (1997,p.17) claims that mistakes are simply the result of slips of the tongue and should not be seen as the result of a wrong interpretation of some rules of the target language. Moreover, the learner who has made this kind of random inaccuracies can correct them when his attention is drawn to them. Norrish (1983) identifies two more terms related to errors such as: lapse and slips. The former one is defined as a type of wrong usage, which may occur due to lack of concentration or shortness of memory. He adds that this kind of wrong usage is not very serious and can be also made by native speakers at any time. The last type of language deviation described by Norrish (1983,p.8) is a careless slip, that is caused by the learners inattentiveness in class. 2.1.1. Significance of errors An essential theory referring importance of errors was introduced by Corder (1967) in his article The significance of learners errors. The author made a distinction between systematic and non systematic error (mistake). He noted that incorrect utterances were a sign of the language development. Moreover he provided evidence that errors are significant in three ways. Firstly to the teachers, errors can tell how far the learner progressed and what knowledge he has to learn to reach the aim. Furthermore they are helpful to the researcher as they demonstrate evidence of the way the language is learned and also methods that are used by a learner to discover the language. Thirdly, making of errors are regarded as a device used by a learner in order to learn. Corder (1967) also claims that making of errors is a strategy employed both by children acquiring their mother tongue and by those learning a second languge. 2.2.Contrastive analysis In 1960 some new theoretical concepts were brought in to foreign language teaching that is: Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis. As Connor (1996) stated the theory of second language learning assumed that before that time most errors were attributed to interference. Contrastive analysis (CA), a major branch of applied linguistics was a very valuable tool in language teaching methodology for both teachers and learners. It provided comparative and contrastive description of the learners native language and the target language. It was assumed that if teachers knew the structure of the learners MT, they would be able to prepare better teaching materials. Lado (1957 cited in James 1980) explained that the contrastive study was established to transfer some features of the L1 to the L2 .Practitioners of CA aimed at explaining particular aspects of L2 learning. They looked at correspondence between the two languages. Lightbown and Spada (1999,p.23) gave an explanation to that situation, stating: Contrastive analysis hypothesis predicts that where there are similarities between the first and the second language, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty. As James (1980) observed, there are three things that can be predicted by CA. They include areas which will cause problems, learners difficulties and learners errors. The aims of the method are pedagogical. As Lado (1957) cited in Ellis. The main aim of CA is pedagogical. As Lado (1957 cited in Edmondson 1999,p.92) states: The teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them. According to Gass and Selinker (2001) CA was based on several of the following assumptions: theory defining language as habit language learning involves a new set of habits the main cause of errors in the production of L2 is learners mother tongue. CA considers differences between L1 and L2 learners should learn only dissimilarities between the two languages whereas similarities should be ignored difficulties are established by differences and similarities between L1 and L2 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis developed two positions that refers strong and weak version. In the strong version it was assumed that prediction could be made about learning and the success of teaching material after comparing the two languages. The weak version begins with an analysis of learners errors attempting to account for these errors on the basis of L1 and L2 differences. Besides the positive aspects of CA, researchers saw many problems deriving from comparison L1 and L2. According to Gass and Selinker (2001) CA could not predict all of the areas in learners difficulties. Moreover they claimed that it is inadequate to clarify the sources of certain types of errors. All of the disadvantages of CA led to development of another linguistic notion called Error Analysis. 2.3 Error Analysis Error analysis (EA) is a type of linguistic investigation which deals with the differences between learning a language and using the language by native speakers. According to Crystal (1980: 135) error analysis is described as: As a technique for identifying, classifying and systematically interpreting the mistakes made by someone learning a foreign language, using any of principles and procedures provided by linguistics. A similar definition of Error Analysis (EA) is given by Brown (1980). He described it as a process of observation, classification of errors and after that revealing the systems used by learners. It was expanded when validity of CA was questioned. According Gass and Selinker (2001) EA offered more possible explanations than CA .It uses possibility of accounting for learners errors while CA attributed errors to mother tongue only. Corder (1967) stresses that EA has two aims: diagnostic, which shows the state of learners interlanguage and prognostic which predicts future learners problems. It focuses on the errors learners make in SLA, assuming that these errors can be easy to avoid if the learners mother tongue and the target language were compared (Richards, 1974). The analysis of the errors was carried out in order to detect difficulties in learning and to discover how a student learns a language. Moreover, EA is dealing with the exploring of the language of second language learners. 2.4. Procedures of Error Analysis There were three steps introduced by Corder (1967) in EA reseach: Data collection: recognition of idiosyncrasy Decription: Accounting for idiosyncratic dialect Explanation (the ultimate object of error analysis) Furthermore, Gass and Selinker (2001,p.79) recognized six steps in conducting error analysis. They include: Data collection, Identifying errors, classifying errors, quantifying errors, analysis of sources and remediation. Beside the advantages of EA, researchers found that it fell short in the analysis of SLA data. According to Gass and Selinker (2001,p.83) one of the problematic area was the attempt to ascribe causes to errors. EA assumed that errors belonged to one source or another. Dulay and Burt (1974b,p.115) identified the fact that EA cannot categorize errors. As a result they originate a category called ambiguous goofs which are defined as those that cant be categorized as either Interference-like goofs or L1 developmental goofs 2.4.1. Identifying errors In this step Corder (1974) prepared a model for recognizing erroneous or idiosyncratic utterances in L2. According to this pattern any sentences produced by learners can be investigated for idiosyncrasies. Based on that model, Corder made a distinction between overt and covert errors. As Ellis (1994) claims the first group of errors is very easy to identify due to the fact that a deviation in forms is very clear. Covertly erroneous sentences are superficially well formed but it can not be interpretable. This mean that the learner may create utterances that are produced on the basis of internalized rules. Overt errors involve utterances which are ungrammatical. As Allen and Corder (1974,p.126) added that recognition of error is thus crucially dependent upon correct interpretation of the learners intentions. 2.4.2. Description of errors The next step after recognizing the errors is describing them. There were a few attempts to describe errors using various taxonomies. Ellis (1997,p.18) among other linguists divided errors into categories. He presented a type of classification related to general ways in which the learners utterances differ from the reconstructed target-language utterances. A similar error taxonomy was produced by Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982), who classified errors into four categories. They include omission, addition, misformation and misordering. The first kind occurs when some items are left out in well formed utterances. For example She writing. Addition involves producing structure that is not required for an utterance to be considered grammatical. As Ellis (1997) claims the most common group of errors is misformation, which considers using sentences with the wrong form of the structure. As an example Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982 cited in Ellis 1994,p.56) offer some samples of wrong forms such as: He did not went there (Dulay, Burt and Krashen cited in Ellis (1994)). Evidence of misordering is found when some morphemes are in the wrong order. For instance What he is reading?. It is noteworthy that this kind of error taxonomy only shows which errors are the most frequent. However , it was not possible to explain how L2 is learned. Therefore a better framework was introduced by Corder (1973) who presented three steps in learning according to error nature and degree of systematicity: Presystematic stage Systematic stage Postsystematic stage In the first stage according to Brown (1980) learners do not know the language structure well, they experiment what results in making many errors. Moreover, students are not aware of particular systems or rules in L2 and they produce random errors. The presystematic stage is seen as the time when students know some rules which they attempt to apply but unsuccessfully. The learner can explain his errors by providing linguistic messages in different structures. However, self correctness is still not possible in this phase. The next stage assumes that learners appear to have acquired a rule. Brown (1980) mentions a term backsliding to errors which can occur in this stage. Brown (1980,p.170) defines it as a form of linguistic regression arising out of the natural spiraling characteristic of human learning Appearance of postsystematic stage is found when learners make errors which can be corrected. As Brown (1980) claims at this stage errors seem to be infrequent. Moreover, learners are p rone to produce correct utterances but it happens inconsistently. The rules were learned but the learners was unsuccessful due to a lapse or lack of attention. 2.4.3. Explanation of errors After identifying and describing the errors in SLA the researchers tried to find the explanation why these language behaviours occurred. There are numerous interpretations underlying error appearance. According to Taylor (1986) the sources of errors can be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic and epistemic. The first group of sources regards the nature of L2 system and the problems learners have in using it. Sociolinguistic sources concern learners abilities to adjust his language in terms of the social context. The last category involves the learners lack of world knowledge. Psycho-linguistic sources of errors, were created by Richards (1974) who proposed a special figure accounting for them and enumerating certain mental phenomenon being in charge or certain accuracy failures, that is Performance errors including transfer, interlingual (overgeneralization, transitional competence, induced errors Performance related to processing problems and communication strategies. Apart from the psycho-linguist sources Richard aimed at giving more origins which resulted in a list of three more sources that include Interference related errors 2.Intralingual errors are divided into four following subcategories: Over -generalization involves creating deviant structures in place of two target language structures (Ellis,1994,p.59). It can also be related to redundancy reduction. It may occur with forms which do not carry important contrasts for the learner. This means that ending -ed- in Past Simple can be omitted. As a result learners produce sentences like: I go to University yesterday. ignorance of rule restrictions involves application of rules which should not appear in contexts. This is a type of transfer when the learner uses structures that have been previously acquired. It can occur even when the target language is close to the mother tongue. Some rule restriction errors may derive from analogy which is a major factor in the wrong use of prepositions. Learners may attempt to use the same prepositions by analogy what leads to producing sentences: He explained me the book from the sentence He showed me the book. Another example of the analogy can be seen in article usage. incomplete rule application, that reflects errors related to analogy. The structures in learners production is not fully developed. This may result in producing declarative word order in questions like: You like to swim? instead of Do you like to swim? false concepts hypothesized can originate from faulty comprehension in the target language. This type of error appears when learners use structures was or were as a marker of Past Simple Tense in example: One day it was happened. Developmental errors, which reflect learners competence and show general features of language acquisition. These errors are caused due to learners limited experience. In contrary Richards (1974, p.174) claims that they illustrate the learner attempting to build up hypotheses about the language. Another linguist who attempted to outline origins of errors was Brown (1980,p.173).whose classification was similar to Richards view. However he added a few more sources of errors that are significant in a teachers understanding of learners interlanguage systems The author recognised such sources as: communication strategies, prefabricated patterns and language switch. George (1972) presented a few arguments related to error derivation. He assumed that some sources of errors are universal. Furthermore, Richard and Sampson (1974) distinguished causes of errors which fall into seven categories: Transfer Intralingual interference Sociolinguistic situation Modality of exposure to TL Age Successions of approximative systems Universal hierarchy of difficulty Apart from interlingual and intralingual sources James (1998) attempted to distinguished another type of sources such as induced errors. Another term described this kind of error was introduced by Brown, who called it context of learning. As Stenson (1974) explains these errors derive from the classroom situation. They occur when learners receive faulty explanation of grammatical rules. Such errors can show teachers the level of the students language competence. 2.4.3.1. Transfer The problem of language transfer has been explained by many researchers. It is believed that it plays a very important role in second language acquisition. According to Ellis (1997) transfer refers to an attempt to use the knowledge of languages that have been learned previously. Learners use their mother tongue experience in order to organize the second language data. They try to create their own rules, construct their grammars. Dulay, Burt and Krashen ( 1982: 101) describe it as the automatic, uncontrolled and subconscious use of past learned behaviors in the attempt to produce new responses According to Arabski (1997) there are numerous factors playing role in transfer occurring. They include learners age, type of language structure and interlanguage development. Littlewood (1984) and many other linguists distinguish two types o

Three Days To See By Helen Kellar Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"Three Days to See† Helen Kellar (1880-1968) Helen Kellar has proved to be one of the greatest role models of not just disabled people, but also people striving towards a goal. Helen Keller (1880-1968) was born in Alabama, USA. When she grew to be 19 months old, her body was taken from sight and hearing. Through this rough time in her life, she still had hope thanks to the gracious teacher, Anne Sullivan. Through Anne Sullivan’s dedication to help someone in need, Helen Kellar learned how to read and speak, just by the mere form of touch. Later on in life, she began schooling, and graduated from university at the phenomenal age of 24. Due to her outstanding energy, enthusiasm, and will, she became an inspiration and strength, which furthered the cause of the worlds deaf and blind. The development of the essay, â€Å"Three Days to See,† helps reveal the true feelings of the extraordinary Helen Kellar, and also exposes an important message to the audience. Helen Kellar has specially laid out a plan of what she would observe if she only had three days to see. She has organized the three days so she could see all the different driving forces of the world. In the first day, she would like to see her loved ones, which include friends and family. She would like to imprint these pictures in her mind of the people who have supported and motivated her for the years of hardship. Helen would like to see God’s grace, which is represented in the natural world. What we all take for grant...